Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 24, Issue 4 , Pages 283-301 , August 1998

Systemic treatment for prostate cancer

  • A.J. Dowling
    • ,
  • I.F. Tannock

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence: Dr. I. Tannock, Department of Medical Oncology and Haematology, Princess Margaret Hospital and University of Toronto, 610 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 2M9, Canada.

References 

  1. Canada NCIC . Canadian Cancer Statistics 1997, Toronto. 1997;
  2. Parker S, Tong T, Bolden S, et al.  Cancer statistics 1997. CA: Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 1997;47:5–27
  3. Schmidt JD, Gibbons RP, Johnson DE, et al.  Chemotherapy of advanced prostatic cancer. In: Evaluation of response parameters. Urology. 7:1976;p. 602–610
  4. Murphy GF, Slack NH. Response criteria for the prostate of the USA National Prostatic Cancer Project. Prostate. 1980;1:375–382
  5. Yagoda A, Watson RC, Natale RB, et al.  A critical analysis of response criteria in patients with prostatic cancer treated with cis-diamminedichloride platinum II. Cancer. 1979;44:1553–1562
  6. Eisenberger MA, Simon R, O'Dwyer PJ, et al.  A reevaluation of nonhormonal cytotoxic chemotherapy in the treatment of prostatic carcinoma. I Clin Oncol. 1985;3:827–841
  7. Tannock IF. Is there evidence that chemotherapy is of benefit to patients with carcinoma of the prostate?. J Clin Oncol. 1985;3:1013–1021
  8. Begg CB, Berlin JA. Publication bias and dissemination of clinical research. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989;81:107–115
  9. Pocock SJ, Hughes MD, Lee RJ. Statistical problems in the reporting of clinical trials. In: A survey of three medical journals. N Engl J Med. 317:1987;p. 426–432
  10. Tannock IF. False-positive results in clinical trials: multiple significance tests and the problem of unreported comparisons. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:206–207
  11. Parmar MK, Ungerleider RS, Simon R. Assessing whether to perform a confirmatory randomized clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1645–1651
  12. Crawford ED, Eisenberger MA, McLeod DG, et al.  A controlled trial of leuprolide with and without flutamide in prostatic carcinoma. N Engl I Med. 1989;321:419–424
  13. Anonymous Maximum androgen blockade in advanced prostate cancer: an overview of 22 randomised trials with 3283 deaths in 5710 patients. Lancet. 1995;346:265–269 Prostate Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group
  14. Eisenberger M, Crawford ED, McLeod D, et al.  A comparison of bilateral orchiectomy with or without flutamide in stage D2 prostate cancer (NCI INT 0105 SWOG/ECOG). In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 16:1997; (abstr 3)
  15. Slevin ML, Plant H, Lynch D, et al.  Who should measure quality of life, the doctor or the patient?. Br J Cancer. 1988;57:109–112
  16. da Silva FC. Quality of Life in prostatic cancer patients. Cancer. 1993;72:3803–3806
  17. Tannock IF, Osoba D, Stockler MR, et al.  Chemotherapy with mitoxantrome plus prednisone or prednisone alone for symptomatic hormone-resistant prostate cancer: a Canadian randomized trial with palliative end points. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:1756–1764
  18. Osoba D, Rodrigues G, Myles J, et al.  Interpreting the significance of changes in health-related quality-of-life scores. I Clin Oncol. 1998;16:139–144
  19. Aaronson NK, Ahmedzai S, Bergman B, et al.  The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer QLQ-C30: a f quality-of-life instrument for use in international clinical trials in oncology. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:365–376
  20. Ringdal GI, Ringdal K. Testing the EORTC Quality of Life Questionnaire on cancer patients with heterogeneous diagnoses. Quality of Life Research. 1993;2:129–140
  21. Esper P, Mo F, Chodak G, et al.  Measuring quality of life in men with prostate cancer using the functional assessment of cancer therapy-prostate instrument. Urology. 1997;50:920–928
  22. Stockler MR, Osoba D, Goodwin P, et al.  Responsiveness to change in health-related quality of life in a randomized clinical trial: a comparison of the Prostate Cancer Specific Quality of Life Instrument (PROSQOLI) with analogous scales from the EORTC QLQ-C30 and a trial specific module. J C1in Epidemiol. 1998;51:137–145
  23. Gleave ME, Hsieh JT, Wu HC, et al.  Serum prostate specific antigen levels in mice bearing human prostate LNCaP tumors are determined by tumor volume and endocrine and growth factors. Cancer Res. 1992;52:1598–1605
  24. Petros JA, Andriole GL. Serum PSA after antiandrogen therapy. Urol Clin N Amer. 1993;20:749–756
  25. Partin AW, Yoo J, Carter HB, et al.  The use of prostate specific antigen, clinical stage and Gleason score to predict pathological stage in men with localized prostate cancer. Urology. 1993;150:110–114
  26. Reynard JM, Peters TJ, Gillatt D. Prostate-specific antigen and prognosis in patients with metastatic prostate cancer—a multivariable analysis of prostrate cancer mortality. Br J Urol. 1995;75:507–515
  27. Sato N, Sadar MD, Bruchovsky N, et al.  Androgenic induction of prostate-specific antigen gene is repressed by proteinprotein interaction between the androgen receptor and AP1/c-Jun in the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. I Biol Chem. 1997;272:17485–17494
  28. Thalmann GN, Sikes RA, Chang SM, et al.  Suramin-induced decrease in prostate-specific antigen expression with no effect on tumor growth in the LNCaP model of human prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:794–801
  29. Fossa SD, Waehre H, Paus E. The prognostic significance of prostate specific antigen in metastatic hormone-resistant prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 1992;68:181–184
  30. Kelly WK, Scher HI, Mazumdar M, et al.  Prostate-specific antigen as a measure of disease outcome in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:607–615
  31. Kelly WK, Slovin S, Schler HI. Clinical use of posttherapy prostate-specific antigen changes in advanced prostate cancer. Semin Oncology. 1996;12:8–14
  32. Smith DC DR, Straderman MS, Pienta KJ. Change in serum prostate-specific antigen as a marker of response to cytotoxic therapy for hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:1835–1843
  33. Anderson JR, Cain KC, Gelber RD. Analysis of survival by tumor response. J Clin Oncol. 1983;1:710–719
  34. Huggins CSR, Hodges CV. II. The effects of castration on advanced carcinoma of the prostate gland. Arch Surg. 1941;43:293209–293223
  35. Daneshgari F, Crawford ED. Endocrine therapy of advanced carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer. 1993;71:1089–1097
  36. Labrie F. Mechanism of action and pure antiandrogenic properties of flutamide. Cancer. 1993;72:3816–3827
  37. Isaacs JT, Lundmo PI, Berges R, et al.  Androgen regulation of programmed death of normal and malignant prostatic cells. Androl. 1992;13:457–464
  38. Byar DP. Treatment of prostatic cancer: studies by the Veterans Administration cooperative urological research group. Bull NY Acad Med. 1972;48:751–766
  39. Menon M, Walsh PC. Hormonal therapy for prostate cancer. In:  Murphy GP editors. Prostatic Cancer. Littlejohn, MA: PSG Publishing; 1979;p. 175–200
  40. Kitahara S, Yoshida K, Ishizaka K, et al.  Stronger suppression of serum testosterone and FSH levels by a synthetic estrogen than by castration or an LH-RH agonist. Endoc J. 1997;44:527–532
  41. de Voogt HJ, Smith PH, Pavone-Macaluso M, et al.  Cardiovascular side effects of diethylstilbestrol, cyproterone acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate and estramustine phosphate used for the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer: results from European Organization for Research on Treatment of Cancer trials 30761 and 30762. J Urol. 1986;135:303–307
  42. Robertson CN, Robertson KM, Padilla GM, et al.  Induction of apoptosis by diethylstilbestrol in hormone-insensitive prostate cancer cells. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:908–917
  43. Boffioux C, Denis L, Mahler C, et al.  Treatment of advanced prostate cancer with LHRH analogues. In: Prevention of flareup phenomenon.  Murphy GP,  Khoury S,  Kuss R, et al. editor. Prostate cancer. Part A: Research, endocrine treatment and histopathology. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1987;p. 255–260
  44. Labrie F, Dupont A, Belanger A, et al.  Flutamide eliminates the risk of disease flare in prostatic cancer patients treated with a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist. J Urol. 1987;138:804–806
  45. Blackledge G. Casodex-mechanisms of action and opportunities for usage. Cancer. 1993;72:3830–3833
  46. Knuth UA, Hano R, Nieschlag E. Effect of flutamide or cyproterone acetate on pituitary and testicular hormones in normal men. J Clin Endoc & Metab. 1984;59:963–969
  47. Plowman PN, Perry LA, Chard T. Androgen suppression by hydrocortisone without aminogluthemide in orchiectomised men with prostatic cancer. Br J Urol. 1987;59:255–257
  48. Tannock I, Gospodarowicz M, Meakin W, et al.  Treatment of metastatic prostatic cancer with low-dose prednisone: evaluation of pain and quality of life as pragmatic indices of response. J Clin Oncol. 1989;7:590–597
  49. Crawford ED, Ahmann FR, Davis MA, et al.  Aminogluthimide in metastatic adenocardinoma of the prostate. In:  Murphy GR,  Khoury S,  Kuss R, et al. editor. Prostate cancer. Part A: Research, endocrine treatment and histopathology. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1987;p. 283–289
  50. Dowsett M, Shearer RJ, Ponder BA, et al.  The effects of aminogluthimide and hydrocortisone, alone and combined, on androgen levels in post-orchiectomy prostatic cancer patients. Br J Cancer. 1988;57:190–192
  51. Vanden Bossche H, De Coster R, Amery WK. Pharmacology and clinical uses of inhibition of hormone secretion and action. In:  Furr BJ,  Wakeling A editor. Pharmacology and clinical uses of ketoconazole. London: Bailliere Tindall; 1987;p. 288–307
  52. Pavone-Macalsuo M. Carcinoma of the prostate-metastatic disease. In:  Smith PH editors. Combination therapy in urological malignancy. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1989;p. 161
  53. Presti JC, Fair WR, Andriole G, et al.  Multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study to investigate the effect of finasteride (MK-906) on stage D prostate cancer. J Urol. 1992;148:1201–1204
  54. Culig Z, Hobisch A, Hittmair A, et al.  Androgen receptor gene mutations in prostrate cancer. In: Implications for disease progression and therapy. Drugs & Aging. 10:1997;p. 50–58
  55. Taplin ME, Bubley GJ, Shuster TD, et al.  Mutation of the androgen-receptor gene in metastatic-independent prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1393–1398
  56. Byar DP. In: Proceedings: The Veterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group's studies of cancer of the prostate. Cancer. 32:1973;p. 1126–1130
  57. Bailar JC, Byar DP. Estrogen treatment for cancer of the prostate. In: Early results with 3 doses of diethylstilbestrol and placebo. Cancer. 26:1970;p. 257–261
  58. Pavone-Macaluso M, Ingargiola GB, de Voogt H, et al.  Cyproterone acetate versus medroxyprogesterone acetate versus diethylstilbestrol in the treatment of prostate cancer: results from EORTC Study 30761. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1987;243A:379–382
  59. Pavone-Macaluso M, Schroder FH, de Voogt HJ, et al.  EORTC protocol 30761: a randomized study of non-metastatic and metastatic prostatic cancer treated by cyproterone acetate versus diethylstilbestrol and medroxyprogesterone acetate. European Organization for Research on Treatment of Cancer Urological Group Prog Clin Biol Res. 1989;303:111–116
  60. Anonymous Leuprolide versus diethylstilbestrol for metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:1281–1286 The Leuprolide Study Group
  61. Alfthan O, Andersson L, Esposti PL, et al.  Cisobitan in treatment of prostatic cancer. In: A prospective controlled multicentre study. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 17:1983;p. 37–43
  62. Parmar H, Phillips RH, Lightman SL, et al.  Randomised controlled study of orchidectomy vs long-acting D-Trp-6LHRH microcapsules in advanced prostatic carcinoma. Lancet. 1985;2:1201–1205
  63. Parmar H, Edwards L, Phillips RH, et al.  Orchiectomy versus long-acting D-Trp-6-LHRH in advanced prostatic cancer. Br J Urol. 1987;59:248–254
  64. Andersson L, Berlin T, Boman J, et al.  Estramustine versus conventional estrogenic hormones in the initial treatment of highly or moderately differentiated prostatic carcinoma. In: A randomized study. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 55:1980;p. 143–145 (Suppl)
  65. Smith PH, Suciu S, Robinson MR, et al.  A comparison of the effect of diethylstilbestrol with low dose estramustine phosphate in the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer: final analysis of a phase III trial of the European Organization for Research on Treatment of Cancer. J Urol. 1986;136:619–623
  66. Benson RC, Gill GM. Estramustine phosphate compared with diethylstilbestrol. In: A randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial for stage D prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 9:1986;p. 341–351
  67. Murphy GP, Huben RP, Priore R. Results of another trial of chemotherapy with and without hormones in patients with newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer. Urology. 1986;28:36–40
  68. Kuhn MW, Weissbach L, Hinke A. Primary therapy of metastatic prostate carcinoma with depot gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue goserelin versus estramustine phosphate. The Prostate Cancer Study Group Urology. 1994;43:61–67
  69. Garnick MB. Leuprolide versus diethylstilbestrol for previously untreated stage D2 prostate cancer. In: Results of a prospectively randomized trial. Urology. 27:1986;p. 21–28
  70. Peeling WB. Phase III studies to compare goserelin (Zoladex) with orchiectomy and with diethylstilbestrol in treatment of prostatic carcinoma. Urology. 1989;33:45–52
  71. Emtage LA, Trethowan C, Hilton C, et al.  Interim report of a randomized trial comparing Zoladex 3.6 mg depot with diethylstilbestrol 3 mg/day in advanced prostate cancer. The West Midlands Urology Research Group Am I Clin Oncol. 1988;11:S173–S175
  72. Vogelzang NJ, Chodak GW, Soloway MS, et al.  Goserelin versus orchiectomy in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer: final results of a randomized trial. Zoladex Prostate Study Group Urology. 1995;46:220–226
  73. Kaisary AV, Ryan PG, Turkes A, et al.  A comparison between surgical orchidectomy and LH-RH analogue (‘Zoladex’, ICI 118,630) in the treatment of advanced prostatic carcinoma—a multi-centre clinical study. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1988;260:89–100
  74. Kaisary AV, Tyrrell CJ, Peeling WB, et al.  Comparison of LHRH analogue (Zoladex) with orchiectomy in patients with metastatic prostatic carcinoma. Br I Urol. 1991;67:502–508
  75. Chodak G, Sharifi R, Kasimis B, et al.  Single-agent therapy with bicalutamide: a comparison with medical or surgical castration in the treatment of advanced prostate carcinoma. Urology. 1995;46:849–855
  76. Kaisary AV, Tyrrell CJ, Beacock C, et al.  A randomised comparison of monotherapy with Casodex 50 mg daily and castration in the treatment of metastatic prostate carcinoma. Casodex Study Group Eur Urol. 1995;28:215–222
  77. Iversen P, Tveter K, Varenhorst E. Randomised study of Casodex 50 MG monotherapy vs orchidectomy in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer. The Scandinavian Casodex Cooperative Group Scand Urol Nephrol. 1996;30:93–98
  78. Ferrari P, Castagnetti G, Ferrari G, et al.  Combination treatment in M1 prostate cancer. Cancer. 1993;72:3880–3885
  79. Daniell HW. Osteoporosis after orchiectomy for prostate cancer. J Urol. 1997;157:439–444
  80. Chang A, Yeap B, Blum R, et al.  A double blind randomized study of primary treatment for stage D2 prostate cancer; diethylstilbestrol versus flutamide. In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 11:1992; (abstr 621)
  81. Wysowski DK, Freiman JP, Tourtelot JB, et al.  Fatal and nonfatal hepatotoxicity associated with flutamide. Ann Int Med. 1993;118:860–864
  82. Labrie F, Dupont A, Giguere M, et al.  Combination therapy with flutamide and castration (orchidectomy of LHRH agonist): the minimal endocrine therapy in both untreated and previously treated patients with advanced cancer of the prostate and bladder. In:  Smith PH,  Pavone-Macaluso M editor. Management of advanced cancer of the prostate and bladder. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1988;p. 41–62
  83. Robinson MR. EORTC protocol 30805: a phase III trial comparing orchidectomy versus orchidectomy and cyproterone acetate and low dose stilboestrol in the management of metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1988;260:101–110
  84. Robinson MR, Smith PH, Richards B, et al.  The final analysis of the EORTC Genito-Urinary Tract Cancer Co-Operative Group phase III clinical trial (protocol 30805) comparing orchidectomy, orchidectomy plus cyproterone acetate and low dose stilboestrol in the management of metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. Eur Urol. 1995;28:273–283
  85. Crawford ED, Blumenstein BA, Goodman PJ, et al.  Leuprolide with and without flutamide in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 1990;66:1039–1044
  86. Denis L, Keuppens F, Robinson M, et al.  Complete androgen blockade: data from an EORTC 30853 trial. Sem Urol. 1990;8:166–174
  87. Denis LJ, Carnelro de Moura JL, Bono A, et al.  Goserelin acetate and flutamide versus bilateral orchiectomy: a phase III EORTC trial (30853). EORTC GU Group and EORTC Data Center Urology. 1993;42:119–129
  88. Denis LJ, Keuppens F, Smith PH, et al.  Maximal androgen blockade: final analysis of EORTC phase III trial 30853. EORTC Genito-Urinary Tract Cancer Cooperative Group and the EORTC Data Center Eur Urol. 1998;33:144–151
  89. Iversen P, Rasmussen F, Klarskov P, et al.  Long-term results of Danish Prostatic Cancer Group trial 86. In: Goserelin acetate plus flutamide versus orchiectomy in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 72:1993;p. 3851–3854
  90. Iversen P, Christensen MG, Friis E, et al.  A phase III trial of Zoladex and flutamide versus orchiectomy in the treatment of patients with advanced carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer. 1990;66:1058–1066
  91. Beland G, Elhilali M, Fradet Y, et al.  A controlled trial of castration with and without nilutamide in metastatic prostatic carcinoma. Cancer. 1990;66:1074–1079
  92. Crawford ED, Kasimis BS, Gandara D, et al.  A randomized controlled clinical trial of leuprolide and anandron versus leuprolide and placebo for advanced prostate cancer. In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 9:1990;p. 523; abstr
  93. Di Silverio F, Serio M, D'Eramo G, et al.  Zoladex plus cyproterone acetate in the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer: multicenter Italian study. Eur Urol. 1990;18(suppl 3):54–61
  94. Fourcade RO, Cariou G, Coloby P, et al.  Total androgen blockade with Zoladex plus flutamide vs. Zoladex alone in advanced prostatic carcinoma: interim report of a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur Eurol. 1990;18(suppl 3):45–47
  95. Benson RC, Crawford ED, Eisenberger MA, et al.  National Cancer Institute study of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone plus flutamide versus luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone plus placebo. Semin Oncol. 1991;18:9–12
  96. Benson RC. Total androgen blockade: the United States experience. Euro Urol. 1993;24:72–76
  97. Tyrrell CJ, Altwein JE, Klippel F, et al.  Multicenter randomized trial comparing Zoladex with Zoladex plus flutamide in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Survival update. International Cancer Study group Cancer. 1993;72:3878–3879
  98. Tyrell CJ, Altwein JE, Klippel F, et al.  A multicenter randomized trial comparing the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue goserelin acetate alone and with flutamide in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. The International Prostate Cancer Study Group J Urol. 1991;146:1321–1326
  99. Janknegt RA, Abbou CC, Bartoletti R, et al.  Orchiectomy and nilutamide or placebo as treatment of metastatic prostatic cancer in a multinational double-blind randomized trial. J Urol. 1993;149:77–82
  100. Janknegt RA. Total androgen blockade with the use of orchiectomy and nilutamide (Anandron) or placebo as treatment of metastatic prostate cancer. Anandron International Study Group Cancer. 1993;72:3874–3877
  101. Klijn JG, de Voogt HJ, Studer UE, et al.  Short-term versus longterm addition of cyproterone acetate to buserelin therapy in comparison with orchidectomy in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer-Genitourinary Group Cancer. 1993;72:3858–3862
  102. de Voogt HJ, Studer U, Schroder FH, et al.  Maximum androgen blockade using LHRH agonist buserelin in combination with short-term (two weeks) or long-term (continuous) cyproterone acetate is not superior to standard androgen deprivation in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Final analysis of EORTC GU Group Trial 30843. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) Genito-Urinary Tract Cancer Cooperative Group Eur Urol. 1998;33:152–158
  103. Boccardo F, Pace M, Rubagotti A, et al.  Goserelin acetate with or without flutamide in the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic prostate cancer. The Italian Prostatic Cancer Project (PONCAP) Study Group Eur J Cancer. 1993;29A:1088–1093
  104. Zalcberg JR, Raghaven D, Marshall V, et al.  Bilateral orchidectomy; flutamide versus orchidectomy alone in newly diagnosed patients with metastatic carcinoma of the prostate—an Australian multicentre trial. Br I Urol. 1996;77:865–869
  105. Boccardo F, Rubagotti L, Miglietta L, et al.  Bicalutamide monotherapy versus flutamide plus goserelin in prostate cancer patients. Preliminary results of an Italian Prostate Cancer Group study In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 16:1997; (abstr 1128)
  106. Akakura K, Bruchovsky N, Godenberg SL, et al.  Effects of intermittent androgen suppression on androgen-dependent tumors. In: Apoptosis and serum prostate-specific antigen. Cancer. 71:1993;p. 2782–2790
  107. Sato N, Gleave ME, Bruchovsky N, et al.  Intermittent androgen suppression delays progression to androgen-independent regulation of prostate-specific antigen gene in the LNCaP prostate tumour model. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1996;58:139–146
  108. Klotz LH, Herr HK, Morse MJ, et al.  Intermittent endocrine therapy for advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 1986;58:2546–2550
  109. Goldenberg SL, Bruchovsky N, Gleave ME, et al.  Intermittent androgen suppression in the treatment of prostate cancer: a preliminary report. Urology. 1995;45:839–844
  110. Oliver RT, Williams G, Paris AM, et al.  Intermittent androgen deprivation after PSA-complete response as a strategy to reduce induction of hormone-resistant prostate cancer. Urology. 1997;49:79–82
  111. Lundgren R, Nordle O, Josefsson K. Immediate estrogen or estramustine phosphate therapy versus deferred endocrine treatment in nonmetastatic prostate cancer: a randomized multicenter study with 15 years of follow up. The South Sweden Prostate Cancer Study Group I Urol. 1995;153:1580–1586
  112. Anonymous Immediate versus deferred treatment for advanced prostatic cancer: initial results of the Medical Research Council Trial. Br J Urol. 1997;79:235246; The Medical Research Council Prostate Cancer Working Party Investigators Group
  113. Jordan WP, Blackard CE, Byar DP. Reconsideration of orchiectomy in the treatment of advanced prostatic carcinoma. South Med J. 1977;70:1411–1413
  114. Klotz LH, Adynia PS, et al.  PSA-related syndromes: a new epidemic—a case history and taxonomy. Urology. 1997;50:831–832
  115. Klugo RC, Farah RN, Cerny JC. Bilateral orchiectomy for carcinoma of prostate. In: Response of serum testosterone and clinical response to subsequent estrogen therapy. Urology. 17:1981;p. 49–50
  116. Geller J. Basis for hormonal management of advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 1993;71:1039–1045
  117. Kelly WK, Scher HI. Prostate specific antigen decline after antiandrogen withdrawal: the flutamide withdrawal syndrome. J Urol. 1993;149:607–609
  118. Scher HI, Kelly WK. Flutamide withdrawal syndrome: its impact on clinical trials in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:1566–1572
  119. Small EJ, Srinivas S. The antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome. In: Experience in a large cohort of unselected patients with advanced prostate cancer. Cancer. 76:1995;p. 1428–1434
  120. Small EJ, Carroll PR. Prostate-specific antigen decline after casodex withdrawal: evidence for an antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome. Urology. 1994;43:408–410
  121. Nieh PT. Withdrawal phenomenon with the antiandrogen casodex. J Urol. 1995;153:1070–1072
  122. Akakura K, Akimoto S, Ohki T, et al.  Antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome in prostate cancer after treatment with steroidal antiandrogen chlormadinone acetate. Urology. 1995;45:700–704
  123. Bissada NK, Kaczmarek AT. Complete remission of hormone refractory adenocarcinoma of the prostate in response to withdrawal of diethylstilbestrol. J Urol. 1995;153:1944–1945
  124. Dawson NA, McLeod DG. Dramatic prostate specific antigen decrease in response to discontinuation of megestrol acetate in advanced prostate cancer: expansion of the antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome. J Urol. 1995;153:1946–1947
  125. Small EJ. Prostate cancer. Curr Opin Oncol. 1997;9:277–286
  126. Block M, Trump D, Rose DP, et al.  Evaluation of amino-glutethimide in stage D prostate cancer: an assessment of efficacy and toxicity in patients with tumors refractory to hormonal therapy. Cancer Treat Rep. 1984;68:719–722
  127. Labrie F, Dupont A, Belanger A, et al.  Anti-hormone treatment for prostate cancer relapsing after treatment with flutamide and castration. In: Addition of aminoglutethimide and low dose hydrocortisone to combination therapy. Br J Urol. 63:1989;p. 634–638
  128. Dijkman GA, Van Moorselaar RJ, Van Ginckel R, et al.  Antitumoral effects of liarozole in androgen-dependent and independent R3327-Dunning prostate adenocarcinomas. J Urol. 1994;151:217–222
  129. Hall AK. Liarozole amplifies retinoid-induced apoptosis in human prostrate cancer cells. Anti-Cancer Drugs. 1996;7:312–320
  130. Mahler C, Verhelst J, Denis L. Ketoconazole and liarozole in the treatment of advanced prostatic cancer. Cancer. 1993;71:1068–1073
  131. Dijkman G. Redifferentiation therapy in hormone-relapsed prostate cancer. In:  Crawford ED editors. 7th International Prostate Cancer Update. Colorado: Beaver Creek; 1997;p. 393–396
  132. Taylor CD, Elson P, Trump DL. Importance of continued testicular suppression in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:2167–2172
  133. Hussain M, Wolf M, Marsall E, et al.  Effects of continued androgen-deprivation therapy and other prognostic factors on response and survival in phase II chemotherapy trials for hormone-refractory prostate cancer: a Southwest Oncology Group report. J Clin Oncol. 1994;12:1868–1875
  134. Early Breast Cancer Trials Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for early breast cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet. 1998;351:1451–1467
  135. Talcott JA, Rieker P, Clark JA, et al.  Patient-reported symptoms after primary therapy for early prostate cancer: results of a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:275–283
  136. Soloway MS, Sharifi R, Wajsman Z, et al.  Randomized prospective study comparing radical prostatectomy alone versus radical prostatectomy preceded by androgen blockade in clinical stage B2 (T2bN × M0) prostate cancer. The Lupron Depot Neoadjuvant Cancer Study Group J Urol. 1995;154:424–428
  137. Labrie F, Cusan L, Gomez JL, et al.  Downstaging by combination therapy with flutamide and an LHRH agonist before radical prostatectomy. Cancer Surveys. 1995;23:149–156
  138. Van Poppel H, De Ridder D, Elgamal AA, et al.  Neoadjuvant hormonal therapy before radical prostatectomy decreases the number of positive surgical margins in stage T2 prostate cancer: interim results of a prospective randomized trial. The Belgian Uro-Oncological Study Group J Urol. 1995;154:429–434
  139. Goldenberg SL, Klotz LH, Srigley J, et al.  Randomized, prospective, controlled study comparing radical prostatectomy alone and neoadjuvant androgen withdrawal in the treatment of localized prostate cancer. Canadian Urologic Oncology Group J Urol. 1996;156:873–877
  140. Witjes WP, Schulman CC, Debruyne FM. Preliminary results of a prospective randomized study comparing radical prostatectomy versus radical prostatectomy associated with neo-adjuvant hormonal combination therapy in T2-3 NO MO ,prostatic carcinoma. The European Study Group on Neoadjuvant Treatment of Prostate Cancer Urology. 1997;49:65–69
  141. Pilepich MV, Krall JM, al-Sarraf M, et al.  Androgen deprivation with radiation therapy compared with radiation therapy alone for locally advanced prostatic carcinoma: a randomized comparative trial of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. Urology. 1995;45:616–623
  142. Bolla M, Gonzalez D, Warde P, et al.  Improved survival in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer treated with radiotherapy and goserelin. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:295–300
  143. Pilepich MV, Caplan R, Byhardt RW, et al.  Phase III trial of androgen suppression using goserelin in unfavorableprognosis carcinoma of the prostrate treated with definitive radiotherapy: report of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group Protocol 85-31. J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:1013–1021
  144. Granfors T, Damber J, Bergh A, et al.  Combined castration and fractionated radiotherapy in an experimental prostatic adenocarcinoma. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 1997;39:1031–1036
  145. Porter AT, McEwan AJ, Powe JE, et al.  Results of a randomized phase-III trial to evaluate the efficacy of strontium-89 adjuvant to local field external beam irradiation in the management of endocrine resistant metastatic prostate cancer. Int J Rad Oncol Biol Phys. 1993;25:805–813
  146. Quilty PM, Kirk D, Bolger JJ, et al.  A comparison of the palliative effects of strontium-89 and external beam radiotherapy in metastatic prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol. 1994;31:33–40
  147. Serafini AN, Houston SJ, Resche I. Palliation of pain associated with metastatic bone cancer using Samarium-153 Lexidronam: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:1574–1581
  148. McEwan AJ, Amyotte GA, McGowan DG, et al.  A retrospective analysis of the cost effectivness of treatment with Metastron in patients with prostate cancer metastatic to bone. Eur Urol. 1994;26:26–31
  149. van Holten-Verzantvoor AT, Bijvoet OL, Cleton FJ, et al.  Reduced morbidity from skeletal metastases in breast cancer patients during long-term bisphosphonate (APD) treatment. Lancet. 1987;2:983–985
  150. Hortobagyi GN, Theriault RL, Porter L, et al.  Efficacy of pamidronate in reducing skeletal complications in patients with breast cancer and lytic bone metastases. Protocol 19 Aredia Breast Cancer Study Group N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1785–1791
  151. Berenson JR, Lichtenstein A, Porter L, et al.  Efficacy of pamidronate in reducing skeletal events in patients with advanced multiple myeloma. Myeloma Aredia Study Group N Engl J Med. 1996;334:488–493
  152. McCloskey EV, MacLennan IC, Drayson MT, et al.  A randomized trial of the effect of clodronate on skeletal morbidity in multiple myeloma. In: MRC Working Party on Leukaemia in Adults. Br J Haematol. 100:1998;p. 317–325
  153. Bloomfield DJ. Should bisphosphonates be part of the standard therapy of patients with multiple myelomas or bone metastases from other cancers? An evidence-based review. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:1218–1225
  154. Adami S, Mian M. Clodronate therapy of metastatic bone disease in patients with prostatic carcinoma. Rec Res Cancer Res. 1989;116:67–72
  155. Vorreuther R. Biphosphonates as an adjunct to palliative therapy of bone metastases from prostatic carcinoma. In: A pilot study on clodronate. Br J Urol. 72:1993;p. 792–795
  156. Cresswell SM, English PJ, Hall RR, et al.  Pain relief and quality-of-life assessment following intravenous and oral clodronate in hormone-escaped metastatic prostate cancer. Br J Urol. 1995;76:360–365
  157. Smith JA. Palliation of painful bone metastases from prostate cancer using sodium etidronate: results of a randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Urol. 1989;141:85–87
  158. Elomaa I, Kylmala T, Tammela T, et al.  Effect of oral clodronate on bone pain. In: A controlled study in patients with metastatic prostatic cancer. Int Urol Nephrol. 24:1992;p. 159–166
  159. Strang P, Nilsson S, Brandstedt S, et al.  The analgesic efficacy of clodronate compared with placebo in patients with painful bone metastases from prostatic cancer. Anticancer Res. 1997;17:4717–4721
  160. Scott WW, Gibbons RP, Johnson DE, et al.  The continued evaluation of the effects of chemotherapy in patients with advanced carcinoma of the prostate. J Urol. 1976;116:211–213
  161. Schmidt JD, Scott WW, Gibbons RP, et al.  Comparison of procarbazine, imidazole-carboxamide and cyclophosphamide in relapsing patients with advanced carcinoma of the prostate. J Urol. 1979;121:185–189
  162. Loening SA, Scott WW, dekemion J, et al.  A comparison of hydroxyurea, methyl-chloroethyl-cyclohexyl-nitrosourea and cyclophosphamide in patients with advanced carcinoma of the prostate. J Urol. 1981;125:812–816
  163. Loening SA, Beckley S, Brady MF, et al.  Comparison of estramustine phosphate, methotrexate and cis-platinum in patients with advanced hormone refractory prostate cancer. J Urol. 1983;129:1001–1006
  164. Small EJ, Marshall ME, Reyno L, et al.  Superiority of suramin + hydrocortisone over placebo + hydrocortisone: results of a multi-center double-blind phase III study in patients with hormone refractory prostate cancer. In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 17:1998; (abstr 1187)
  165. Torti FM, Aston D, Lum BL, et al.  Weekly doxorubicin in endocrine-refractory carcinoma of the prostate. J Clin Oncol. 1983;1:477–482
  166. Roth BJ, Yeap BY, Wilding G, et al.  Taxol in advanced hormone-refractory carcinoma of the prostate. In: A phase II trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer. 72:1993;p. 2457–2460
  167. Hudes GR, Kosierowski R, Greenberg R, et al.  Phase II study of topotecan in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Investig New Drugs. 1995;13:235–240
  168. Abell F, Wilkes J, Divers L, et al.  Oral cyclophosphamide for hormone refractory prostate cancer. In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 14:1995; (abstr 646)
  169. Hudes GR, Nathan GR, Nathan F, Khater C, et al.  Phase II trial of 96-hour paclitaxel plus oral estramustine phosphate in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:3156–3163
  170. Kantoff PW, Conaway M, Winer E, et al.  Hydrocortisone with or without mitoxantrone in patients with hormone refractory prostate cancer; preliminary results from a prospective randomized Cancer and Leukemia Group B Study (9182) comparing chemotherapy to best supportive care. In: Proc Am Soc Oncol. 1996; 15: (abstr 2013)
  171. Bloomfield DJ, Krahn MD, Neogi T, et al.  Economic evaluation of chemotherapy with mitoxantrone plus prednisone for symptomatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer: based on a Canadian randomized trial with palliative end points. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:2272–2279
  172. Soliven B, Dhand UK, Kobayashi K, et al.  Evaluation of neuropathy in patients on suramin treatment. Muscle & Nerve. 1997;20:83–91
  173. Kobayashi K, Weiss RE, Vogelzang NJ, et al.  Mineralocorticoid insufficiency due to suramin therapy. Cancer. 1996;78:24112420
  174. Murphy GP, Beckley S, Brady MF, et al.  Treatment of newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer patients with chemotherapy agents in combination with hormones versus hormones alone. Cancer. 1983;51:1264–1272
  175. Iversen P, Rasmussen F, Asmussen C, et al.  Estramustine phosphate versus placebo as second line treatment after orchiectomy in patients with metastatic prostate cancer: DAPROCA study 9002. In: Danish Prostatic Cancer Group. J Urol. 157:1997;p. 929–934
  176. Newling DW, Fossa SD, Tunn UW, et al.  Mitomycin C versus estramustine in the treatment of hormone resistant prostate cancer: the final analysis of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer, genitourinary group prospective randomized phase II study (30865). J Urol. 1993;150:1840–1844
  177. Hudes GR, Greenberg R, Krigel RL, et al.  Phase II study of estramustine and vinblastine, two microtubule inhibitors, in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1992;10:1754–1761
  178. Pienta KJ, Redman B, Hussain M, et al.  Phase II evaluation of oral estramustine and oral etoposide in hormone-refractory adenocarcinoma of the prostate. J Clin Oncol. 1994;12:2005–2012
  179. Attivissimo LA, Fetten JV, Kreis W. Symptomatic improvemennt associated with combined estramustine and vinblastine chemotherapy for metastatic prostate cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1996;19:581–583
  180. Hudes G, Roth B, Loehrer P, et al.  Phase III trial of vinblastine versus vinblastine estramustine phosphate for metastatic hormone refractory prostate cancer. In: Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 16:1997; (abstr 1127)
  181. Naitoh J, Belldegrun A. Gene therapyt̄he future is here: a guide to the practicing urologist. Urology. 1998;51:367–380
  182. Slovin SF, Kelly WK, Scher HI. Immunological approaches for the treatment of prostate cancer. Sem Urol Oncol. 1998;16:53–59
  183. Eckhardt SG, Pluda JM. Development of angiogenesis inhibitors for cancer therapy,Invest New Drugs 15, 1–3.

PII: S0305-7372(98)90062-7

Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 24, Issue 4 , Pages 283-301 , August 1998

Article Tools