Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 28, Issue 4 , Pages 181-188 , August 2002

Adjuvant therapy of resectable rectal cancer

  • Bruce D Minsky

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence to: Bruce D. Minsky, MD, Department of Radiation Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Ave., New York, NY 10021, USA, Tel.: +1-212-639-6817; Fax: +1-212-639-2417

References 

  1. National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference. Adjuvant therapy for patients with colon and rectal cancer. J Amer Med Assoc 1990; 264: 1444–1450
  2. Skibber JM, Hoff PM, Minsky BD, Devita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 6th edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkens, 2001; Cancer of the Rectum. pp. 1271–1318
  3. Bosset JF, Horiot JC, Hamers HP, Cionini L, Bartelink H, Caspers RJL, et al. Postoperative pelvic radiotherapy with or without elective irradiation of para-aortic nodes and liver in rectal cancer patients. A controlled clinical trial of the EORTC Radiotherapy Group. Radiother. Oncol. 2001;61:7–13
  4. Krook JE, Moertel CG, Gunderson LL, Wieand HS, Collins RT, Beart RW, et al  Effective surgical adjuvant therapy for high-risk rectal carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 1991;324:709–715
  5. Wolmark N, Weiand HS, Hyams DM, Colangelo L, Dimitrov N, Romond EH, et al  Randomized trial of postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy for carcinoma of the rectum: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol R-02. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2000;92:388–396
  6. Tepper JE, O’Donnell MJ, Niedzwiecki D, Hollis DR, Benson AB, Cummings B, et al. Adjuvant therapy in rectal cancer: analysis of stage, sex, and local control – final report of Intergroup 0114. J. Clin. Oncol. 2002;20:1744–1750
  7. Minsky BD, Cohen AM, Enker WE, Kemeny N, Kelsen DP, Reichman B, et al. Combined modality therapy of rectal cancer: decreased acute toxicity with the pre-operative approach. J. Clin. Oncol. 1992;10:1218–1224
  8. Sauer R, Fietkau R, Wittekind C, Martus P, Rodel C, Hohenberger P, et al  Adjuvant versus neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Strahlenther Onkol. 2001;177:173–181
  9. Roh MS, Petrelli N, Weiand H, et al.  Phase III randomized trial of preoperative versus postoperative multimodality therapy in patients with carcinoma of the rectum (NSABP R-03). Proc. ASCO. 2001;20:123a; [Abstract]
  10. Botwood N, James R, Vernon C, et al.  A phase I study of “Tomudex” (raltitrexed) with radiotherapy (RT) as adjuvant treatment in patients (pt) with operable rectal cancer. Proc. ASCO. 1998;17:277a; [Abstract]
  11. Fernandez-Martos C, Aparicio J, Bosch C, et al.  Preoperative therapy (PT) with oral uracil and tegafur (UFT) and concomitant irradiation (RT) in operable rectal cancer (RC). Preliminary results of a multicenter phase II study. Proc. ASCO. 2001;20:148a; [Abstract]
  12. Valentini V, Morganti AG, Luzi S, et al.  Chemoradiation with raltitrexed (Tomudex) and oxaliplatin in preoperative treatment of stage II/III resectable rectal cancer: a dose finding study. Proc. ASCO. 2001;20:131a; [Abstract]
  13. Freyer G, Bossard N, Romestaing P, Mornex F, Chapet O, Trillet-Lenoir V, et al. Addition of oxaliplatin to continuous infusion fluorouracil, l-folinic acid, and concomitant radiotherapy in rectal cancer: the Lyon R 97-03 phase I trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 2001;19:2433–2438
  14. Klautke G, Kirchner R, Hopt U, et al.  Continuous infusion of 5-FU and weekly irinotecan with concurrent radiotherapy as neoadjuvant treatment for locally advanced or recurrent rectal cancer. Proc. ASCO. 2001;20:140a; [Abstract]
  15. Ranson M, Hammond LA, Ferry D, Kris M, Tullo A, Murray PI, et al  ZD1839, a selective oral epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is well tolerated and active in patients with solid, malignant tumors: results of a phase I trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 2002;20:1512–1521
  16. Dunst J, Reese T, Frings S. Phase I study of capecitabine combined with simultaneous radiotherapy in rectal cancer. Proc. ASCO. 2001;20:149a; [Abstract]
  17. Willett CG, Badizadegan K, Ancukiewicz M, Shellito PC. Prognostic factors in stage T3N0 rectal cancer. Do all patients require post- operative pelvic irradiation and chemotherapy?. Dis. Colon Rectum. 1999;42:167–173
  18. Merchant NB, Guillem JG, Paty PB, Enker WE, Minsky BD, Quan SHQ, et al. T3N0 rectal cancer: results following sharp mesorectal excision and no adjuvant therapy. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 1999;3:642–647
  19. Minsky BD. Multidisciplinary management of resectable rectal cancer. Oncology. 1996;10:1701–1714
  20. Camma C, Giunta M, Fiorica F, Pagliaro L, Craxi A, Cottone M. Preoperative radiotherapy for resectable rectal cancer. A meta-analysis. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 2000;284:1008–1015
  21. Colorectal Cancer Collaborative Group. Adjuvant radiotherapy for rectal cancer: a systematic overview of 22 randomised trials involving 8507 patients. Lancet 2001; 358: 1291–1304
  22. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 980–987
  23. Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CAM, Nagtegaal ID, Putter H, Steup WH, Wiggers T, et al  Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001;345:638–646
  24. van de Velde CJH. Preoperative radiotherapy and TME-surgery for rectal cancer: detailed analysis in relation to quality control in a randomized trial. Proc. ASCO. 2002;21:127a; [Abstract]
  25. Marijnen CAM, Kapiteijn E, van de Velde CJH, Martijn H, Steup WH, Wiggers T, et al. Acute side effects and complications after short-term preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision in primary rectal cancer: Report of a multicenter randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 2002;20:817–825
  26. Graf W, Dahlberg M, Osman MM, Holmberg L, Pahlman L, Glimelius B. Short-term preoperative radiotherapy results in down-staging of rectal cancer: a study of 1316 patients. Radiother. Oncol. 1997;43:133–137
  27. Marijnen CAM, Nagtegaal ID, Kranenbarg EK, Hermans J, van de Velde CJH, Leer JWH, et al. No downstaging after short-term preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer patients. J. Clin. Oncol. 2001;19:1976–1984
  28. Francois Y, Nemoz CJ, Baulieux J, Vignal J, Grandjean JP, Partensky C, et al. Influence of the interval between preoperative radiation therapy and surgery on downstaging and on the rate of sphincter-sparing surgery for rectal cancer: The Lyon R90-01 randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 1999;17:2396–2402
  29. Sauer R, Fietkau R, Martus P, et al.  Adjuvant and neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy for advanced rectal cancer – first results of the German multicenter phase-III-trial. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2000;48:119; [Abstract]
  30. Wagman R, Minsky BD, Cohen AM, Guillem JG, Paty PB. Sphincter preservation with preoperative radiation therapy and coloanal anastomosis: long term follow-up. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1998;42:51–57
  31. Rouanet P, Saint Aubert B, Lemanski C, Senesse P, Gourgou S, Quenet F, et al. Restorative and nonrestorative surgery for low rectal cancer after high dose radiation. Long term oncologic and functional results. Dis. Colon Rectum. 2002;45:305–315
  32. Hyams DM, Mamounas EP, Petrelli N, Rockette H, Jones J, Wieand S, et al. A clinical trial to evaluate the worth of preoperative multimodality therapy in patients with operable carcinoma of the rectum. A progress report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol R0-3. Dis. Colon Rectum. 1997;40:131–139
  33. Valentini V, Coco C, Cellini N, Genovesi D, Mantini G, Barbaro B, et al  Preoperative chemoradiation for extraperitoneal T3 rectal cancer: acute toxicity, tumor response, and sphincter preservation. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1998;40:1067–1075
  34. Grann A, Feng C, Wong D, et al.  Pre-op combined modality therapy (CMT) for uT3 rectal cancer. Proc. ASCO. 2000;19:249a; [Abstract]
  35. Maghfoor I, Wilkes J, Kuvshinoff B, et al.  Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy with sphincter-sparing surgery for low lying rectal cancer. Proc. ASCO. 1997;16:274; [Abstract]
  36. Grumann MM, Noack EM, Hoffman IA, Schlag PM. Comparison of quality of life in patients undergoing abdominoperineal extirpation or anterior resection for rectal cancer. Ann. Surg. 2001;233:149–156
  37. Kollmorgen CF, Meagher AP, Pemberton JH, Martenson JA, Ilstrup DM. The long term effect of adjuvant postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer on bowel function. Ann. Surg. 1994;220:676–682
  38. Onaitis MW, Noone RB, Fields R, Hurwitz HI, Morse M, Jowell P, et al  Complete response to neoadjuvant chemoradiation for rectal cancer does not influence survival. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2001;8:801–806
  39. Janjan NA, Crane C, Feig BW, Cleary K, Dubrow R, Curley S, et al  Improved overall survival among responders to preoperative chemoradiation for locally advanced rectal cancer. Am. J. Clin. Oncol. 2001;24:107–112
  40. Mohiuddin M, Hayne M, Regine WF, Hanna N, Hagihara PF, McGrath P, et al. Prognostic significance of postchemoradiation stage following preoperative chemotherapy and radiation for advanced/recurrent rectal cancers. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2000;48:1075–1080
  41. Read TE, Ogunbiyi OA, Fleshman JW, Birnbaum EH, Fry RD, Myerson RJ, et al. Neoadjuvant external beam radiation and proctectomy for adenocarcinoma of the rectum. Dis. Colon Rectum. 2001;44:1778–1790
  42. Hiotis SP, Weber SM, Cohen AM, Minsky BD, Paty PB, Guillem JG, et al. Assessing the predictive value of clinical complete response to neoadjuvant therapy for rectal cancer: an analysis of 488 patients. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2002;194:131–136
  43. Luna-Perez P, Segura J, Alvarado I, Labastida S, Santiago-Payan H, Quintero A. Specific c-K-ras gene mutations as a tumor-response marker in locally advanced rectal cancer treated with preoperative chemoradiotherapy. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2000;7:727–731
  44. Villafranca E, Okruzhnov Y, Dominguez MA, Garcia-Foncillas J, Azinovic I, Martinez E, et al  Polymorphisms of the repeated sequences in the enhancer region of the thymidylate synthase gene promoter may predict downstaging after preoperative chemoradiation in rectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 2001;19:1779–1786
  45. Esposito G, Pucciarelli S, Alaggio R, Giacomelli L, Marchiori E, Iaderosa GA, et al. p27kip1 expression is associated with tumor response to preoperative chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2001;8:311–318
  46. Elsaleh H, Robbins P, Joseph D, Powell B, Grieu F, Menso L, et al. Can p53 alterations be used to predict tumor response to pre-operative chemo-radiotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer?. Radiother. Oncol. 2000;56:239–244
  47. Kandioler D, Zwrtek R, Ludwig C, Janschek E, Ploner M, Hofbauer F, et al  TP53 genotype but not p53 immunohistochemical result predicts response to preoperative short-term radiotherapy in rectal cancer. Ann. Surg. 2002;235:493–498
  48. Schwander O, Bruce HP, Broll R. p21, p27, cyclin D1, and p53 in rectal cancer: immunohistology with prognostic significance. Int. J. Colorectal. Dis. 2002;17:11–19
  49. Adell GCE, Zhang H, Evertsson S, Sun XF, Stal OHG, Nordenskjold BA. Apoptosis in rectal cancer. Prognosis and recurrence after preoperative radiotherapy. Cancer. 2001;91:1870–1875
  50. Rodel C, Grabenbauer GG, Papadopoulos T, Bigalke M, Gunther K, Schick C, et al. Apoptosis as a cellular predictor for histopathologic response to neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy in patients with rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2002;52:294–303
  51. Adell G, Zhang H, Jansson A, Sun XF, Stal O, Nordenskjold B. Decreased tumor cell proliferation as an indicator of the effect of preoperative radiotherapy of rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2001;50:659–663
  52. Habr-Gama A, Santinho B, de Souza PM, Ribeiro U, Nadalin W, Gansl R, H.S.e Sousa A, Campos FG, Gama-Rodrigues J. Low rectal cancer. Impact of radiation and chemotherapy on surgical treatment. Dis. Colon Rectum 1998; 41: 1087–1096
  53. Barbaro B, Schulsinger A, Valentini V, Marano P, Rotman M. The accuracy of transrectal ultrasound in predicting the pathological stage of low-lying rectal cancer after preoperative chemoradiation therapy. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1999;43:1043–1047
  54. Gavioli M, Bagni A, Piccagli I, Fundaro S, Natalini G. Usefulness of endorectal ultrasound after preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum. 2000;43:1075–1083
  55. Guillem JG, Puig-La Calle J, Akhurst T, Tickoo S, Ruo L, Minsky BD, et al  Prospective assessment of primary rectal cancer response to preoperative radiation and chemotherapy using 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Dis. Colon Rectum. 2000;43:18–24
  56. Guillem JG, Moore HG, Akhurst T. Prospective evaluation of the prognostic significance of FDG-PET assessment of rectal cancer response to preoperative chemoradiation. Proc. ASCO. 2002;21:145a; [Abstract]
  57. MacFarlane JK, Ryall RD, Heald RJ. Mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Lancet. 1993;341:457–460
  58. Leong APK. Selective total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum. 2000;43:1237–1240
  59. Haas-Kock DFM, Baeten CGMI, Jager JJ, Langendijk JA, Schouten LJ, Volovics A, et al. Prognostic significance of radial margins of clearance in rectal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 1996;83:781–785
  60. Enker WE, Thaler HT, Cranor ML, Polyak T. Total mesorectal excision in the operative treatment of carcinoma of the rectum. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 1995;181:335–345
  61. Arenas RB, Fichera A, Mhoon D, Michelassi F. Total mesenteric excision in the surgical treatment of rectal cancer. A prospective study. Arch. Surg. 1998;133:608–612
  62. Havenga K, Enker WE, Norstein J, Moriya Y, Heald RJ, van Houwelingen JC, et al. Improved survival and local control after total mesorectal excision or D3 lymphadenectomy in the treatment of primary rectal cancer: an international analysis of 1411 patients. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 1999;25:368–374
  63. Aitken RJ. Mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 1996;83:214–216
  64. Carlsen E, Schlichting E, Guldvog I, Johnson E, Heald RJ. Effect of the introduction of total mesorectal excision for the treatment of rectal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 1998;85:526–529
  65. Poon RTP, Chu KW, Ho JWC, Chan CW, Law WL, Wong J. Prospective evaluation of selective defunctioning stoma for low anterior resection with total mesorectal excision. World J. Surg. 1999;23:463–468
  66. Dahlberg M, Glimelius B, Pahlman L. Changing strategy for rectal cancer is associated with improved outcome. Br. J. Surg. 1999;86:379–384
  67. Cox JD, Guse C, Asbell S, Rubin P, Sause WT. Tolerance of pelvic normal tissues to hyperfractionated radiation therapy: results of protocol 83-08 of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1988;15:1331–1336
  68. Coucke PA, Cuttat JF, Mirimanoff RO. Adjuvant postoperative accelerated hyperfractionated radiotherapy in rectal cancer: a feasibility study. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1993;27:885–889
  69. Coucke PA, Sartorelli B, Cuttat JF, Jeanneret W, Gillet M, Mirimanoff RO. The rationale to switch from postoperative hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy to preoperative hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy in rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1995;32:181–188
  70. Stupp R, Matter M, Volter V, et al.  Preoperative hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy (HART) and concomitant CPT-11 in locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC): a phase I study. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2001;51:11; [Abstract]
  71. Janjan NA, Crane C, Feig BW, Cleary K, Dubrow R, Curley SA, et al  Prospective trial of preoperative concomitant boost radiotherapy with continuous infusion 5-fluorouracil for locally advanced rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2000;47:713–718
  72. Movsas B, Hanlon A, Lanciano R, Scher RM, Weiner LM, Sigurdson ER, et al  Phase I dose escalating trial of hyperfractionated pre-operative chemoradiation for locally advanced rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1998;42:43–50
  73. Diratzouian H, Movsas B, Hanlon AL, et al.  Phase II trial of preoperative chemoradiation with a hyperfractionated RT boost in locally advanced rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2001;51:10; [Abstract]
  74. Myerson RJ, Valentini V, Birnbaum EH, Cellini N, Coco C, Fleshman JW, et al  A phase I/II trial of three-dimensionally planned concurrent boost radiotherapy and protracted venous infusion of 5-FU chemotherapy for locally advanced rectal carcinoma. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2001;50:1299–1308
  75. Tait DM, Nahum AE, Meyer LC, Law M, Dearnaley DP, Horwich A, et al. Acute toxicity in pelvic radiotherapy; a randomised trial of conformal versus conventional treatment. Radiother. Oncol. 1997;42:121–136
  76. Shank B, LoSasso T, Brewster L, Burman C, Cheng E, Chu JCH, et al  Three-dimensional treatment planning for post-operative treatment of rectal carcinoma. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1991;21:253–265
  77. Tatsuzaki H, Urie MM, Willett CG. 3-D comparative study of proton vs. x-ray radiation therapy for rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1991;22:369–374
  78. Duncan W, Arnott SJ, Jack WJL, Orr JA, Kerr GR, Williams JR. Results of two randomized trials of neutron therapy in rectal adenocarcinoma. Radiother. Oncol. 1987;8:191–198
  79. Anscher MS, Lee C, Hurwitz HI, Tyler DS, Prosnitz LR, Jowell P, et al. A pilot study of preoperative continuous infusion 5-fluorouracil, external microwave hyperthermia, and external beam radiotherapy for treatment of locally advanced, unresectable, or recurrent rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2000;47:719–724
  80. Rau B, Wust P, Tilly W, Gellermann J, Harder C, Riess H, et al. Preoperative radiochemotherapy in locally advanced or recurrent rectal cancer: regional radiofrequency hyperthermia correlates with clinical parameters. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 2000;48:381–391
  81. van der Zee J, Gonzalez DG, van Rhoon GC, van Dijk JD, Putten WLJ, Hart AAM. Comparison of radiotherapy alone with radiotherapy plus hyperthermia in locally advanced pelvic tumors: a prospective, randomised, multicenter trial. Lancet. 2000;355:1119–1125

PII: S0305-7372(02)00037-3

Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 28, Issue 4 , Pages 181-188 , August 2002