Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 28, Issue 4 , Pages 165-180 , August 2002

Tamoxifen (‘Nolvadex’): a review: Antitumour treatment

  • M Clemons

      Affiliations

    • Division of Medical Oncology, Toronto-Sunnybrook Regional Cancer Centre, Toronto, Canada M4N 3M5
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence to: Mark Clemons MD, Division of Medical Oncology, Toronto-Sunnybrook Regional Cancer Centre, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, Canada M4N 3M5. Tel.: +1-416-480-5847; Fax: +1-416-217-1338
    • ,
  • S Danson

      Affiliations

    • Department of Medical Oncology, Christie Hospital NHS Trust, Manchester, UK
    • ,
  • A Howell

      Affiliations

    • Department of Medical Oncology, Christie Hospital NHS Trust, Manchester, UK

References 

  1. Beatson GT. On the treatment of inoperable cases of carcinoma of the suggestions for a new method of treatment with illustrative cases. Lancet. 1896;2:104–107
  2. Lerner LJ, Holthaus J, Thompson CR. A nonsteroidal estrogen antagonist 1-(p-2-diethylaminoethoxyphenyl)-1-phenyl-2-(p-methoxyphenyl)-ethanol. Endocrinology. 1958;63:295–318
  3. Holtkamp DE, Greslin DE, Root CA, Lerner LJ. Gonadotrophin inhibiting and antifecundity effects of chloramiphene. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1966;105:197–201
  4. Newberne JW, Kuhn WL, Elsea JR. Toxicologic studies on clomiphene. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1966;9:44–56
  5. Kistner RW. Induction of ovulation with clomiphene citrate (Clomid). Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1965;20:873–900
  6. Harper MJK, Walpole AL. A new derivative of triphenylethylene: effect on implantation and mode of action in rats. J Reprod Fertil. 1967;13:101–119
  7. Klopper A, Hall M. New synthetic agent for the induction of ovulation: preliminary trials in women. Br Med J. 1971;1:152–154
  8. Harper MJK, Walpole AL. Contrasting endocrine activities of cis and trans isomers in a series of substituted triphenylethylenes. Nature. 1966;212:87
  9. Cole MP, Jones CTA, Todd DH. A new anti-oestrogenic agent in late breast cancer. An early clinical appraisal of ICI 46474. Br J Cancer. 1971;25:270–275
  10. Litherland S, Jackson IM. Antioestrogens in the management of hormone-dependent cancer. Cancer Treat Rev. 1998;15:183–194
  11. Nagai R, Kumaoka S. Clinical evaluation of tamoxifen in breast cancer (primary and recurrent)—double blind study. Clin Eval. 1980;8:321–352
  12. Westerberg H. Tamoxifen and fluoxymesterone in advanced breast cancer: a controlled clinical trial. Cancer Treat Rep. 1980;64:117–121
  13. Wada T, Yoshida M, Senoo T. Clinical studies of tamoxifen in advanced breast cancer (Japan)—multi-centre open trial and double blind trial. Rev. Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1981;(Suppl. 9):293–300
  14. Gershanovich M, Garin A, Baltina D, Kurvet A, Kangas L, Ellmen J. A Phase III comparison of two toremifene doses to tamoxifen in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1997;45:251–262
  15. Ribeiro GG. A clinical trial to compare the use of tamoxifen vs stilboestrol in the treatment of post-menopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Rev. Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1981;(Suppl. 9):409–414
  16. Beex L, Pieters G, Smals A, Koenders A, Benraad T, Kloppenborg P. Tamoxifen versus ethinyl estradiol in the treatment of postmenopausal women in advanced breast cancer. Cancer Treat Rep. 1981;65:179–185
  17. Ingle JN, Ahmann DL, Green SJ, Edmonson JH, Bisel HF, Kvols LK, et al.  Randomized clinical trial of diethylstilbestrol versus tamoxifen in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1981;304:16–21
  18. Posey LE, Morgan LR. Comparison of tamoxifen and diethylstilbestrol (DES) in advanced breast cancer. Clin Res. 1978;26:593A; (Abstract)
  19. Stewart HJ. Edinburgh study on ‘Nolvadex’ (tamoxifen) against oestrogens. Rev. Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1979;(Suppl. 3):51–56
  20. Paschold EH, Slatkoff ML, Muss HB, White DR, Richards F, Jackson DV, et al.  Hormonal therapy of advanced breast cancer: efficacy and toxicity of diethylstilbestrol (DES) vs. tamoxifen (TAM). Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res. 1981;22:380; (Abstract C-186)
  21. Matelski H, Greene R, Huberman M, Lokich J, Zipoli T. Randomized trial of estrogen vs. tamoxifen therapy for advanced breast cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1985;8:128–133
  22. Burn I. Primary endocrine therapy of advanced local breast cancer. (‘Nolvadex’, stilboestrol). Rev Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1985;(Suppl. 16):5–8
  23. Gockerman JP, Spremulli EN, Raney M, Logan T. Randomized comparison of tamoxifen versus diethylstilbestrol in estrogen-receptor or—unknown metastatic breast cancer: a Southeastern Cancer Study Group trial. Cancer Treat Rep. 1986;70:1199–1203
  24. Della Cuna GR. Third-line therapy for pretreated progressive postmenopausal breast carcinoma. Current Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy. 1981;2:1479–1480
  25. Ingle JN, Ahmann DL, Green SJ, Creagan ET, Hahn RG, Rubin J. Randomized clinical trial of megestrol acetate versus tamoxifen in paramenopausal or castrated women with advanced breast cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 1982;5:155–160
  26. Morgan LR, Donley PJ. Tamoxifen versus megestrol acetate in breast cancer. Rev Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1981;(Suppl. 9):301–310
  27. Silva A, Bianco R, Bono A, Cocconi G, Daquino S, Grignani F, et al. Medroxyprogesterone acetate versus tamoxifen in advanced breast cancer. In: Ishigami J, ed. Recent Advances in Chemotherapy: Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Chemotherapy. 1985, 1320–1321
  28. Bruno M, Diaz B, Roldan E. Comparative study between TX and MAP in advanced breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem. 1983;19: Abstract XI
  29. Muss HB, Paschold EH, Black WR, Cooper MR, Capizzi RL, Christian R, et al.  Megestrol acetate vs tamoxifen in advanced breast cancer: a phase III trial of the Piedmont Oncology Association (POA). Semin Oncol. 1985;12(Suppl. 1):55–61
  30. Alexieva-Figusch J, van Putten WLJ, van Gilse HA, Blonk-vd Wijst J, Klijn JG. Sequential treatment of metastatic breast cancer with tamoxifen after megestrol acetate therapy and vice versa (a retrospective study). Med Oncol Tumor Pharmacother. 1985;2:69–75
  31. Ettinger DS, Allegra J, Bertino JR, Bonomi P, Browder H, Byrne P, et al.  Megestrol acetate versus tamoxifen in advanced breast cancer: correlation of hormone receptors and response. Semin Oncol. 1986;14(Suppl. 4):9–14
  32. Mattsson W. A phase III trial of treatment of tamoxifen versus treatment with high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate in advanced postmenopausal breast cancer. Progr Cancer Res Therapy. 1980;15:65–71
  33. Mattsson W, von Eyben F, Hallsten I, Tennvall I. A phase III study of tamoxifen versus high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate (HD-MPA) in postmenopausal advanced breast cancer. Int Symp Medroxyprogesterone Acetate, Geneva, 1982; 37: 615
  34. Berreta G, Tabiadon D, Tedeschi I, Luporini G. Hormonotherapy of advanced breast carcinoma: comparative evaluation of tamoxifen citrate versus medroxyprogesterone acetate. In:  Iacobelli S,  Lippman ME,  Della Cuna GR editor. The role of tamoxifen in breast cancer. New York: Raven Press; 1982;p. 113–120
  35. van Veelen H, Willemse PH, Tjabbes T, Schweitzer MJ, Sleijfer DT. Oral high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate versus tamoxifen. A randomized crossover trial in postmenopausal patients with advanced breast cancer. Cancer. 1986;58:7–13
  36. Mechl Z, Lorenz I, Nekulova M, Sopkova B. MPA vs. TX in the treatment of advanced breast cancer. 13th International Congress of Chemotherapy, Vienna, 1983: Abstract 269 (SE 12.8.1.A-3)
  37. Pannuti F, Martoni A, Fruet F, Burroni P, Canova N, Hall S. Oral high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate versus tamoxifen in postmenopausal patients with advanced breast cancer. In:  Iacobelli S,  Lippman ME,  Della Cuna GR editor. The role of tamoxifen in breast cancer. New York: Raven Press; 1982;p. 85–92
  38. Hortobagyi GN, Buzdar AU, Frye D, Yap HY, Hug V, Pinnamaneni K, et al.  Oral medroxyprogesterone acetate in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1985;5:321–326
  39. Allegra JC, Bertino J, Bonomi P, Byrne P, Carpenter J, Catalano R, et al.  Metastatic breast cancer: preliminary results with oral hormonal therapy. Semin Oncol. 1985;12(Suppl. 6):61–64
  40. Muss H, Paschold E, Case D, Spurr C, Jackson D, Richards F, et al.  Megestrol acetate (M) versus tamoxifen (T) in advanced breast cancer: an update. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1985;6:183; (Abstract 77)
  41. Keller J, Browder H, White JM, Hunter H. Megestrol acetate (MA) compared to tamoxifen (T) in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer: preliminary results. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 1985;4:62; (Abstract C-238)
  42. Nemoto T, Patel J, Rosner D, Dao T. Tamoxifen (‘Nolvadex’) versus adrenalectomy in metastatic breast cancer. Cancer. 1984;53:1333–1335
  43. Buchanan RB, Blamey RW, Durrant KR, Howell A, Paterson AG, Preece PE, et al.  A randomized comparison of tamoxifen with surgical oophorectomy in premenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1986;4:1326–1330
  44. Ingle JN, Krook JE, Green SJ, Kubista TP, Everson LK, Ahmann DL, et al.  Randomized trial of bilateral oophorectomy versus tamoxifen in premenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer. Ann Int Med. 1986;104:455–460
  45. Beex L, Pieters G, Raemaekers J, Smals A, Wobbes T, Schade R, et al.  Ovariectomy versus tamoxifen in premenopausal patients with estradiol (ER) or progesterone receptor (PgR) positive or unknown advanced breast cancer. J Steroid Biochem. 1987;28(Suppl.):107S; (Abstract C-025)
  46. Fossati R, Confalonieri C, Torri V, Ghislandi E, Penna A, Pistotti V, et al.  Cytotoxic and hormonal treatment for metastatic breast cancer: a systematic review of published randomised trials involving 31,510 women. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:3439–3460
  47. Gale KE, Andersen JW, Tormey DC, Mansour EG, Davis TE, Horton J, et al.  Hormonal treatment for metastatic breast cancer. An Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Phase III trial comparing aminoglutethimide to tamoxifen. Cancer. 1994;73:354–361
  48. Alonso-Muñoz MC, Ojeda-González MB, Beltran-Fabregat M, Dorca-Ribugent J, López-López L, Borrás-Balada J, et al.  Randomized trial of tamoxifen versus aminoglutethimide and versus combined tamoxifen and aminoglutethimide in advanced postmenopausal breast cancer. Oncology. 1988;45:350–353
  49. Lipton A, Harvey HA, Santen RJ, Boucher A, White D, Bernath A, et al.  Randomized trial of aminoglutethimide versus tamoxifen in metastatic breast cancer. Cancer Res. 1982;42(Suppl. 8):3434S–3436S
  50. Pérez Carrión R, Alberola Candel V, Calabresi F, Michel RTh, Santos R, Delozier T, et al.  Comparison of the selective aromatase inhibitor formestane with tamoxifen as first-line hormonal therapy in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Ann Oncol. 1994;5(Suppl. 7):S19–S24
  51. Thürlimann B, Beretta K, Bacchi M, Castiglione-Gertsch M, Goldhirsch A, Jungi WF, et al.  First-line fadrozole HCI (CGS 16949A) versus tamoxifen in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Prospective randomised trial of the Swiss Group for Clinical Cancer Research SAKK 20/88. Ann Oncol. 1996;7:471–479
  52. Falkson CI, Falkson HC. A randomised study of CGS 16949A (fadrozole) versus tamoxifen in previously untreated postmenopausal patients with metastatic breast cancer. Ann Oncol. 1996;7:465–469
  53. Mouridsen H, Gershanovich M, Sun Y, Pérez-Carrión R, Boni C, Monnier A, et al.  Superior efficacy of letrozole versus tamoxifen as first-line therapy for postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer: results of a phase III study of the International Letrozole Breast Cancer Group. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:2596–2606
  54. Buzdar A, Nabholtz JM, Robertson JF, Thurlimann B, Bonneterre J, von Euler M, et al.  Anastrozole (Arimidex) versus tamoxifen as first- line therapy for advanced breast cancer (Abc) in postmenopausal (Pm) women—combined analysis from two identically designed multicentre trials. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2000;19:154a; (Abstract 609D)
  55. Thurlimann B, Robertson JFR, Bonneterre J, Buzdar A, Nabholtz J-MA on behalf of the Arimidex Study Group. Efficacy of tamoxifen following ArimidexTM (anastrozole) as first-line treatment for advanced breast cancer (ABC) in postmenopausal (PM) women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2000; 64: 51 (Abs. 162)
  56. Pain JA, Wickremesinghe SS, Bradbeer JW. Combined tamoxifen and anabolic steroid as primary treatment for breast carcinoma in the elderly. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1990;16:225–228
  57. Ingle JN, Twito DI, Schaid DJ, Cullinan SA, Krook JE, Mailliard JA, et al.  Combination hormonal therapy with tamoxifen plus fluoxymesterone versus tamoxifen alone in postmenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer. Cancer. 1991;67:886–891
  58. Milsted R, Habeshaw T, Kaye S, Sangster G, Macbeth F, Campbell-Ferguson J, et al.  A randomised trial of tamoxifen versus tamoxifen with aminoglutethimide in post-menopausal women with advanced breast cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 1985;14:272–273
  59. Ingle JN, Mailliard JA, Schaid DJ, Krook JE, Gesme DH, Windschitl HE, et al.  A double-blind trial of tamoxifen plus prednisolone versus tamoxifen plus placebo in postmenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer: A collaborative trial of the North Central Cancer Treatment Group and Mayo Clinic. Cancer. 1991;68:34–39
  60. Bonneterre J, Mauriac L, Weber B, Roche H, Fargeot P, Tubiana-Hulin M, et al.  Tamoxifen plus bromocriptine versus tamoxifen plus placebo in advanced breast cancer: results of a double blind multicentre clinical trial. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 1988;24:1851–1853
  61. Mouridsen HT, Palshof T, Rose C. Therapeutic effect of tamoxifen alone versus tamoxifen in combination with gestagen and oestrogen in advanced breast cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res. 1980;71:169–177
  62. Gill PG, Gebski V, Snyder R, Burns I, Levi J, Byrne M, et al.  Randomized comparison of the effects of tamoxifen, megestrol acetate, or tamoxifen plus megestrol acetate on treatment response and survival in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Ann Oncol. 1993;4:741–744
  63. Morgan WP, Jones V, James KW, Baum M, Webster DJT. A prospective trial of the treatment of advanced breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Clin Oncol. 1980;6:382–383
  64. Guduric B, Miljkovic I. The administration of tamoxifen (‘Nolvadex’, ICI) in patients with advanced breast cancer. Rev Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1981;(Suppl. 9):522–591
  65. Wada T, Koyama H, Terasawa T. Tamoxifen alone versus tamoxifen plus 1-(2-tetrahydrofuryl)-5-fluorouracil in the treatment of advanced breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1981;1:53–58
  66. Honjo K, Kudo T, Uchida S. Results of postmarketing surveillance of ‘Nolvadex’ in clinical practice. Diagnosis and Treatment (Japan). 1985;73:2626–2647
  67. Bezwoda WR, Derman D, de Moor NG, Lange M, Levin J. Treatment of metastatic breast cancer in estrogen receptor positive patients. A randomized trial comparing tamoxifen alone versus tamoxifen plus CMF. Cancer. 1982;50:2247–2250
  68. Nolvadex Adjuvant Trial Organisation. Controlled trial of tamoxifen as adjuvant agent in management of early breast cancer. Interim analysis at four years by Nolvadex Adjuvant Trial Organisation. Lancet 1983; 1: 257–261
  69. Nolvadex Adjuvant Trial Organisation. Controlled trial of tamoxifen as single adjuvant agent in management of early breast cancer. Analysis at six years by Nolvadex Adjuvant Trial Organisation. Lancet 1985; 1: 836–840
  70. Nolvadex Adjuvant Trial Organisation. Controlled trial of tamoxifen as a single adjuvant agent in the management of early breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1988; 57: 608–611
  71. Ribeiro G, Swindell R. The Christie Hospital adjuvant tamoxifen trial-status at 10 years. Br J Cancer. 1988;57:601–603
  72. Ribeiro G, Swindell R. The Christie Hospital adjuvant tamoxifen (Nolvadex®) breast trial: an analysis at a maximum follow-up of 13 years. In: Blamey RW editor. Current controversies in the treatment of breast cancer. The Nottingham Proceedings. Carnforth: Partenon, 1990; 2: 99–109
  73. Ribeiro G, Swindell R. The Christie Hospital adjuvant tamoxifen trial. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1992;11:121–125
  74. Dewar JA, Horobin JM, Preece PE, Tavendale R, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Wood RA. Long term effects of tamoxifen on blood lipid values in breast cancer. Br Med J. 1992;305:225–226
  75. Scottish Cancer Trials Office. Adjuvant tamoxifen in the management of operable breast cancer: the Scottish Trial. Report from the Breast Cancer Trials Committee, Scottish Cancer Trials Office (MRC), Edinburgh. Lancet 1987; 2: 171–175
  76. Stewart HJ. The Scottish trial of adjuvant tamoxifen in node- negative breast cancer. Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1992;11:117–120
  77. Stewart HJ, Forrest AP, Everington D, McDonald CC, Dewar JA, Hawkins RA, et al.  Randomised comparison of 5 years of adjuvant tamoxifen with continuous therapy for operable breast cancer. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group. Br J Cancer. 1996;74:297–299
  78. McDonald CC, Stewart HJ. Fatal myocardial infarction in the Scottish adjuvant tamoxifen trial. The Scottish Breast Cancer Committee. Br Med J. 1991;303:435–437
  79. McDonald CC, Alexander FE, Whyte BW, Forrest AP, Stewart HJ. Cardiac and vascular morbidity in women receiving adjuvant tamoxifen for breast cancer in a randomised trial. The Scottish Cancer Trials Breast Group. Br Med J. 1995;311:977–980
  80. Andersson M, Storm HH, Mouridsen HT. Incidence of new primary cancers after adjuvant tamoxifen therapy and radiotherapy for early breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1991;83:1013–1017
  81. Mouridsen HT, Andersen AP, Brincker H, Dombernowsky P, Rose C, Andersen KW. Adjuvant tamoxifen in postmenopausal high-risk breast cancer patients: present status of Danish Breast Cancer Cooperative Group trials. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1986;1:115–118
  82. Palshof T, Carstensen B, Mouridsen HT, Dombernowsky P. Rev Endocrine-Relat Cancer. 1985;(Suppl. 17):43–49
  83. Cummings FJ, Gray R, Davis TE, Tormey DC, Harris JE, Falkson GG, et al.  Tamoxifen versus placebo: double-blind adjuvant trial in elderly women with stage II breast cancer. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1986;1:119–123
  84. Senn HJ, Gelber RD, Goldhirsch, Thürlimann, editors. Adjuvant Therapy of Breast Cancer V. Germany: Springer, 1987
  85. Fornander T, Rutqvist LE, Cedermark B, Glas U, Mattsson A, Silfversward C, et al.  Adjuvant tamoxifen in early breast cancer: occurrence of new primary cancers. Lancet. 1989;1:117–120
  86. Rutqvist LE, Cedermark B, Glas U, Johansson H, Nordenskjold B, Skoog L, et al.  The Stockholm trial on adjuvant tamoxifen in early breast cancer. Correlation between estrogen receptor level and treatment effect. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1987;10:255–266
  87. Rutqvist LE, Cedermark B, Glas U, Mattsson A, Skoog L, Somell A, et al.  Contralateral primary tumors in breast cancer patients in a randomized trial of adjuvant tamoxifen therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1991;83:1299–1306
  88. Swedish Breast Cancer Cooperative Group. Randomized trial of two versus five years of adjuvant tamoxifen for postmenopausal early stage breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 1543–1549
  89. Swedish Breast Cancer Cooperative Group. Randomized trial of 2 versus 5 years of adjuvant tamoxifen in postmenopausal early-stage breast cancer. Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 1996; 15: 126 (Abstract 171)
  90. Fisher B, Costantino J, Redmond C, Poisson R, Bowman D, Couture J, et al.  A randomized clinical trial evaluating tamoxifen in the treatment of patients with node-negative breast cancer who have estrogen- receptor-positive tumors. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:479–484
  91. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham L, Redmond C, Wolmark N, Margolese R, et al.  Adjuvant therapy for node-negative breast cancer: an update of NSABP findings. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 1993;12:69; (Abstract 79)
  92. Fisher B, Dignam J, Bryant J, DeCillis A, Wickerham DL, Wolmark N, et al.  Five versus more than 5 years of tamoxifen therapy for breast cancer patients with negative lymph nodes and estrogen receptor-positive tumours. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1529–1542
  93. CRC Adjuvant Breast Trial Working Party. Cyclophosphamide and tamoxifen as adjuvant therapies in the management of breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1988; 57: 604–607
  94. CRC Breast Cancer Trials Group. The effect of adjuvant tamoxifen: the latest results from the Cancer Research Campaign Adjuvant Breast Trial. Eur J Cancer 1992; 28: 904–907
  95. Baum M, Houghton J, Riley D for the CRC Breast Cancer Trials Group. Results of the Cancer Research Campaign Adjuvant Trial for Perioperative Cyclophosphamide and Long-Term Tamoxifen in Early Breast Cancer reported at the tenth year of follow-up. Acta Oncol 1992; 31: 251–257
  96. Fisher B, Brown A, Wolmark N, Redmond C, Wickerham DL, Wittliff J, et al.  Prolonging tamoxifen therapy for primary breast cancer. Findings from the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project clinical trial. Ann Int Med. 1987;106:649–654
  97. Goldhirsch A, Gelber R. Adjuvant treatment for early breast cancer: the Ludwig breast cancer studies. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1986;1:55–70
  98. Ludwig Breast Cancer Study Group. Randomised trial of chemo- endocrine therapy, endocrine therapy, and mastectomy alone in postmenopausal patients with operable breast cancer and axillary node metastasis. Lancet 1984; 1: 1256–1260
  99. Castiglione-Gertsch M, Johnsen C, Goldhirsch A, Gelber RD, Rudenstam CM, Collins J, et al.  The International (Ludwig) Breast Cancer Study Group Trials I-IV: 15 years follow-up. Ann Oncol. 1994;5:717–724
  100. Marshall JS, Gordon NH, Hubay CA, Pearson OH. Assessment of tamoxifen as adjuvant therapy in stage II breast cancer: a long-term follow- up. J Lab Clin Med. 1987;109:300–307
  101. Tormey DC, Gray R, Taylor 4th SG, Knuiman M, Olson JE, Cummings FJ. Postoperative chemotherapy and chemohormonal therapy in women with node-positive breast cancer. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1986;1:75–80
  102. Taylor 4th SG, Knuiman MW, Sleeper LA, Olson JE, Tormey DC, Gilchrist KW, et al.  Six-year results of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group trial of observation versus CMFP versus CMFPT in postmenopausal patients with node-positive breast cancer. Clin Oncol. 1989;7:879–889
  103. Falkson HC, Gray R, Wolberg WH, Gillchrist KW, Harris JE, Tormey DC, et al.  Adjuvant trial of 12 cycles of CMFPT followed by observation or continuous tamoxifen versus four cycles of CMFPT in postmenopausal women with breast cancer: an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group phase III study. J Clin Oncol. 1990;8:599–607
  104. Tormey DC, Gray R, Falkson HC for the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Postchemotherapy adjuvant tamoxifen therapy beyond five years in patients with lymph node-positive breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 1828–1833
  105. Boccardo F, Rubagotti A, Amoroso D, Sismondi P, Genta F, Nenci I, et al.  Chemotherapy versus tamoxifen versus chemotherapy plus tamoxifen in node-positive, oestrogen-receptor positive breast cancer patients. An update at 7 years of the 1st GROCTA (Breast Cancer Adjuvant Chemo-Hormone Therapy Cooperative Group) trial. Eur J Cancer. 1992;28:673–680
  106. Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Effects of adjuvant tamoxifen and of cytotoxic therapy on mortality in early breast cancer: an overview of 61 randomised trials among 28,896 women. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1681–1692
  107. Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for early breast cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 1998; 351: 1451–1467
  108. Goldhirsch A, Glick JH, Gelber RD, Coates AS, Senn H-J. Meeting highlights: international consensus panel on the treatment of primary breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3817–3827
  109. Cummings FJ, Gray R, Tormey DC, Davis TE, Volk H, Harris J, et al.  Adjuvant tamoxifen versus placebo in elderly women with node- positive breast cancer: long-term follow-up and causes of death. Clin Oncol. 1993;11:29–35
  110. Current Trials Working Party of the Cancer Research Campaign Breast Cancer Trials Group. Preliminary results from the cancer research campaign trial evaluating tamoxifen duration in women aged fifty years or older with breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 1834–1839
  111. Dignam JJ, Bryant J, Wieand HS, Fisher B, Wolmark N. Early stopping of a clinical trial when there is evidence of no treatment benefit: protocol B-14 of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project. Control Clin Trials. 1998;19:575–588
  112. Peto R. Five years of tamoxifen—or more?. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1791–1793
  113. Tobias JS. The ATAC (‘Arimidex’, Tamoxifen, Alone or in Combination) adjuvant breast cancer trial in postmenopausal women. Eur J Cancer. 2002;38(Suppl 3):S92; (Abstract 202)
  114. Cuzick J, Baum M. Tamoxifen and contralateral breast cancer. Lancet. 1985;2:282
  115. Narod SA, Brunet J-S, Ghadirian P, Robson M, Heimdal K, Neuhausen SL, et al.  Tamoxifen and risk of contralateral breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: a case-control study. Lancet. 2001;356:1876–1881
  116. Powles T, Eeles R, Ashley S, Easton D, Chang J, Dowsett M, et al.  Interim analysis of the incidence of breast cancer in the Royal Marsden Hospital tamoxifen randomised chemoprevention trial. Lancet. 1998;352:98–101
  117. Veronesi U, Maisonneuve P, Costa A, Sacchini V, Maltoni C, Robertson C, et al.  Prevention of breast cancer with tamoxifen: preliminary findings from the Italian randomised trial among hysterectomised women. Lancet. 1998;352:93–97
  118. Fisher B, Constantino JP, Wickerham L, Redmond CK, Kavanah M, Cronin WM, et al.  Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:1371–1388
  119. Gail MH, Brinton LA, Byar DP, Corle DK, Green SB, Schairer C, et al.  Projecting individualized probabilities of developing breast cancer for white females who are being examined annually. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989;81:1879–1886
  120. Pritchard KI. Is tamoxifen effective in prevention of breast cancer?. Lancet. 1998;352:80–81
  121. Cuzick J. Continuation of the International Breast Cancer Intervention Study (IBIS). Eur J Cancer. 1998;34:1647–1648
  122. King M-C, Wieand S, Hale K, Lee M, Walsh T, Owens K, et al.  Tamoxifen and breast cancer incidence among women with inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP-P1) Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. JAMA. 2001;286:2251–2256
  123. Mosca L. Rationale and overview of the Raloxifene Use for the Heart (RUTH) trial. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001;949:181–185
  124. Fisher B, Dignam J, Wolmark N, Wickerham DL, Fisher ER, Mamounas E, et al.  Tamoxifen in treatment of intraductal breast cancer: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project B-24 randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1993–2000
  125. Wiebe VJ, Osborne CK, Fuqua SA, DeGregorio MW. Tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 1993;14:173–188
  126. Ali S, Coombes C. Endocrine-responsive breast cancer and strategies for combating resistance. Nature Rev Cancer. 2002;2:101–112
  127. Osborne CK. Mechanisms for tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer: possible role of tamoxifen metabolism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1993;47:83–89
  128. Howell A, Robertson J. Response to a specific antioestrogen (ICI 182780) in tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer. Lancet. 1995;345:989–990
  129. Howell A, Osborne CK, Morris C, Wakeling AE. ICI 182,780 (FaslodexTM ). Development of a novel, “pure” antiestrogen. Cancer. 2000;89:817–825
  130. Wakeling AE, Valcaccia B, Newboult E, Green LR. Non- steroidal antioestrogens-receptor binding and biological response in rat uterus, rat mammary carcinoma and human breast cancer cells. J Steroid Biochem. 1984;20:111–120
  131. Colletta AA, Benson JR, Baum M. Alternative mechanisms of action of anti-oestrogens. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1994;31:5–9
  132. Butta A, MacLennan K, Flanders KC, Sacks NPM, Smith I, McKinna A, et al.  Induction of transforming growth factor beta-1 in human breast cancer in vivo following tamoxifen treatment. Cancer Res. 1991;52:4261–4264
  133. Ho GH, Ji CY, Phang BH, Lee KO, Soo KC, Ng EH. Tamoxifen alters levels of serum insulin-like growth factors and binding proteins in postmenopausal breast cancer patients: a prospective paired cohort study. Ann Surg Oncol. 1998;5:361–367
  134. Cullen KJ, Lippman ME, Chow D, Hill S, Rosen N, Zwiebel JA. Insulin-like growth factor-II overexpression in MCF-7 cells induces phenotypic changes associated with malignant progression. Mol Endocrinol. 1992;6:91–100
  135. Haron EF, Maretzek AF, Goldberg I, Horowitz A, Degani H. Tamoxifen enhances cell death in implanted MCF7 breast cancer by inhibiting endothelium growth. Cancer Res. 1994;54:5511–5514
  136. Sutherland RL, Green MD, Hall RE, Reddel RR, Taylor IW. Tamoxifen induces accumulation of MCF 7 human mammary carcinoma cells in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 1983;19:615–621
  137. Sutherland RL, Watts CK, Ruenitz PC. Definition of two distinct mechanisms of action of antiestrogens on human breast cancer cell proliferation using hydroxytriphenylethylenes with high affinity for the estrogen receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1986;140:523–529
  138. Perry RR, Kang Y, Greaves B. Effects of tamoxifen on growth and apoptosis of estrogen-dependent and—independent human breast cancer cells. Ann Surg Oncol. 1995;2:238–245
  139. Professional information brochure. Nolvadex (tamoxifen citrate). June 2000
  140. Fornander T, Hellstrom AC, Moberger B. Descriptive clinicopathologic study of 17 patients with endometrial cancer during or after adjuvant tamoxifen in early breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1850–1855
  141. Rutqvist LE, Johansson H, Signomklao T, Johansson U, Fornander T, Wilking N. Adjuvant tamoxifen therapy for early stage breast cancer and second primary malignancies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:645–651
  142. Jordan VC, Assikis VJ. Endometrial carcinoma and tamoxifen: clearing up a controversy. Clin Cancer Res. 1995;1:467–472
  143. Assikis VJ, Jordan VC. Gynecologic effects of tamoxifen and the association with endometrial cancer. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1995;49:241–257
  144. Saphner T, Tormey DC, Gray R. Venous and arterial thrombosis in patients who received adjuvant therapy for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1991;9:286–294
  145. Wilking N, Isaksson E, von Schoultz E. Tamoxifen and secondary tumors. An update. Drug Saf. 1997;16:104–117
  146. Powles TJ, Hickish T, Kanis JA, Tidy A, Ashley S. Effect of tamoxifen on bone mineral density measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in healthy premenopausal and postmenopausal women. J Clin Oncol. 1996;4:78–84
  147. Love RR, Mazess RB, Barden HS, Epstein S, Newcomb PA, Jordan VC, et al.  Effects of tamoxifen on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:852–856
  148. Love RR, Barden HS, Mazess RB, Epstein S, Chappell RJ. Effect of tamoxifen on lumbar spine bone mineral density in postmenopausal women after 5 years. Arch Int Med. 1994;154:2585–2588
  149. Love RR, Wiebe DA, Newcomb PA, Cameron L, Leventhal H, Jordan VC, et al.  Effects of tamoxifen on cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women. Ann Int Med. 1991;115:860–864
  150. Decensi A, Robertson C, Rotmensz N, Severi G, Maisonneuve P, Sacchini V, et al.  Effect of tamoxifen and transdermal hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular risk factors in a prevention trial. Italian Chemoprevention Group. Br J Cancer. 1998;78:572–578
  151. Rutqvist LE, Mattsson A. Cardiac and thromboembolic morbidity among postmenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer in a randomized trial of adjuvant tamoxifen. The Stockholm Breast Cancer Study Group. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1398–1406
  152. Baum M. Tamoxifen. Endocrinol Relat Cancer. 1997;4:237–243
  153. Forbes JF. The incidence of breast cancer: the global burden, public health considerations. Semin Oncol. 1997;24(Suppl. 1):S1-20–S1-35
  154. Peto R. Mortality from breast cancer in UK has decreased suddenly. Br Med J. 1998;317:476–477
  155. Short R. Breast cancer fall in American women continues. Eur J Cancer. 1996;32A:1447

PII: S0305-7372(02)00036-1

Cancer Treatment Reviews
Volume 28, Issue 4 , Pages 165-180 , August 2002

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution